Castine

British Forces Land at Bagaduce

On June 17, 1779, a British force of approximately 700 soldiers under Brigadier General Francis McLean landed at Bagaduce (present-day Castine) and began constructing Fort George on the high ground above the harbor. The operation was part of a broader British plan to establish a Crown colony — "New Ireland" — in the territory between the Penobscot and St. Croix Rivers, creating a buffer between the United States and British Canada. The fortification was incomplete when the American expedition arrived six weeks later.

Massachusetts Assembles the Penobscot Expedition Fleet

Massachusetts assembled the largest American naval force of the Revolutionary War: more than forty vessels, including warships, transports, and supply ships, carrying over a thousand soldiers and several hundred marines and sailors. The expedition was a significant logistical achievement for a state already stretched by the demands of the war. Commodore Dudley Saltonstall commanded the naval element; Brigadier General Solomon Lovell commanded the land forces.

American Fleet Arrives at Bagaduce

On July 25, 1779, the American Penobscot Expedition fleet arrived at Bagaduce Harbor. The British garrison of approximately 700 men was visible on the high ground above; Fort George was still under construction. The American force substantially outnumbered the garrison, and a resolute assault might have carried the position in the first days. Instead, Saltonstall declined to engage the three British sloops-of-war in the harbor without army flank support, and the three weeks of fatal hesitation began.

Three Weeks of Command Paralysis

For nearly three weeks after the initial landing, the American command failed to conduct a decisive assault. Saltonstall insisted he could not engage the British sloops without army protection of his flanks; Lovell insisted he could not assault the fort without naval suppression of the harbor defenses. Councils of war produced arguments rather than orders. The British worked steadily to complete Fort George. American officers sent letters to the Massachusetts General Court complaining about the stalemate. Nothing changed until the British relief squadron arrived.

American Marines Capture Heights Above Harbor

On July 28, American marines and light infantry landed under fire and captured the high ground at the harbor entrance — a significant tactical success that gave the American land forces a position threatening the British approach to Fort George. It was the most aggressive American action of the entire expedition. Rather than following through with an assault on the partially completed fort, the American command consolidated the position and waited for circumstances that never materialized.

British Relief Squadron Arrives Under Collier

On August 13, 1779, Commodore George Collier arrived with a British relief squadron of seven vessels from New York. The American fleet, which might have dealt with the Bagaduce garrison weeks earlier, was now outgunned by the relief force. Saltonstall ordered the fleet to flee up the Penobscot River. Collier pursued. Over the next three days, the American disaster unfolded completely.

American Fleet Destroyed on the Penobscot River

Pursued up the Penobscot River by Collier's squadron, American captains began burning their own ships to prevent capture. In three days, more than thirty American vessels were destroyed — some burned by their crews, some captured, some run aground. Soldiers and sailors went overland, many dying in the Maine wilderness before reaching safety. It was the worst American naval disaster between the Revolution and Pearl Harbor. The British secured the Penobscot territory for the rest of the war.

Saltonstall Court-Martialed and Dismissed

The Massachusetts General Court convened a court of inquiry and then a court-martial to examine the Penobscot disaster. Commodore Saltonstall was found primarily responsible for the failure and was dismissed from the Continental Navy. The proceedings made clear that command paralysis — rather than British strength — had caused the disaster, a conclusion that military historians have largely sustained.

Paul Revere Court-Martialed for Penobscot Conduct

Paul Revere, who commanded the artillery train attached to the land forces, was charged with disobedience and cowardice in connection with his conduct during the retreat. He was accused of refusing to share his artillery horses and organizing his own company's retreat independently of the broader command. Revere pressed a counter-investigation, gathering witnesses and producing his own account. The charges were formally dismissed in 1782, but he never again held military command.

Britain Leverages Castine at Paris Peace Negotiations

During the Paris peace negotiations of 1782–83, Britain attempted to retain the territory between the Penobscot and St. Croix Rivers — the eastern Maine territory its forces had held since 1779 — as part of any peace settlement. The Castine garrison and the Penobscot territory were explicit British war aims. American negotiators, led by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, held the line on a boundary at the St. Croix River. Britain's geographic position in the Penobscot, established by the disaster of 1779, had given them a real negotiating chip.